The
rise of Fascism in Italy was one of the most striking developments in Europe
between the two world wars. The chief objective of Fascism was a sweeping
programme of political, social and economic reforms in the country. It was a
counter offense against communism and established what may be called ‘a
dictatorship of the middle class’. Fascism has also been represented as the
last stand of capitalism.
Rise of Fascism in Italy: Genesis
The
genesis of the rise of Fascism in Italy can be studied as under:
Italy
had sided with the Allies during the World War I. However, she did not get the
reward promised to her in the Treaty of London (1915).
When
the interests of Italy and Yugoslavia clashed on the question of Fiume, the Allied
Powers favoured the latter, which annoyed Italy.
The
Communist government in Italy had failed to maintain law and order in the
country. The government was weak enough and did not dare to take action against
the instigators. Riots, fighting, strikes and violence had become usual in
Italy. The Socialists and the Fascists fought almost in all the big cities and
the government paid no attention to these disturbances. It gave the Fascists an
opportunity to rise in power.
Even
the Ministers were very inefficient. The Government under Netti and then under
Giolitti proved incapable to deal with the situation. It required bold
leadership, which was provided by the Fascists.
A
number of patriots, mostly belonging to the middle-classes, were alarmed at the
failure of the government and desired a strong Government in the Centre. The
party in power was pacifist. But these patriots felt that a pacifist Government
had always failed to rule efficiently. When they found that the government was
not interested to take any strong action against the destroyers of law and
order, they decided to save the country from the Communist yoke and to perform
where the communist rulers had failed. Out of these patriots rose a body, which
later on came to be known as the Fascists. Jackson remarks, “Italians felt
themselves disgraced in the eyes of the world, swindled by their own
politicians…. The political party in power in 1919 was pacifist, its leaders
old and cynical. It is little wonder that Italians turned to violence.”
In
brief, the failure of the Communist experiment, the weakness of the government,
the subsidies of the rich, the revival of the middle class, the spread of
patriotism, and the desire for a strong Central Government by the various
classes of people created ground for the birth and success of Fascism in Italy.
Career of Mussolini
Benito
Mussolini was born in 1883 A.D. in the home of a black-smith in Italy. His
mother was a teacher in a school. Having attained the age of 18, Mussolini
started his career as a teacher. However, he did not find this profession of
his taste and aspiration. So he resigned and went to Switzerland hoping for a
better future. In Switzerland, he was influenced by the views of socialism.
During his stay there, he formed many trade unions and succeeded in calling on
strikes. Considering his activities harmful for peace in the country, the Swiss
government expelled him. On his return to Italy, Mussolini was charged for his
participation in the Agrarian Riots and was imprisoned. After his release, he went
to Trent in Austria, where he caused the displeasure of the Austrian government
and was expelled. In 1911 -12, Mussolini returned to Italy and was again
arrested for criticizing the Italian attack on Tripoli (Africa).
For
his sacrifices, he was appointed the Editor of Avanti, the official paper of
the Socialist Party. Being a socialist, he opposed the Italian participation in
the World War I. However, he soon changed his views and began to support his
country’s participation in the War. Consequently, he was expelled from the
Socialist Party and removed from his post of the Editor of Avanti. But he was
not discouraged and founded a newspaper named Populo De’ Italia and became its Editor.
When
the Bill of compulsory military service was passed, Mussolini was also sent to
the frontiers. He was wounded in a bomb explosion and was, therefore, released
from the army.
After the World War, Mussolini
called a meeting of the ex-servicemen and formed a new organization --- Fascia
De Combatemento (Union of Combats). A large number of people joined this
organization.
Mussolini on the path of progress
Fascists denounced the Italian
government both at home and abroad through the pamphlets, speeches and
patriotic demonstrations. Fascism gained popularity in Italy, particularly
after the failure of the Communist sponsored movement for the capture of the
factories. Mussolini, in his war against communism, started a military
agitation, namely Senadrite. Its members wore black shirts, wandered in various
parts of the country and combated with the communists using such destructive
weapons like kerosene oil, petrol, iron rods etc., resulting in heavy loss of
life on both the sides. These activities of the Fascists were even secretly
supported by the Government of Giolitti.
Fascist movement in progress
The number of the Fascists
went on increasing tremendously as the movement became more and more popular.
The employers supported it as a guarantee against lockouts and strikes. The
landlords supported it as a security against peasant uprisings. Common men and
the intellectuals found in it a symbol of peace and order, while the patriots
saw the realization of their national goal.
The Fascist Party, established
in November 1921A.D, further strengthened the movement. There was to be a Fascist Grand Council at the Centre for
the entire country, whose head was to be known as Duce. Under him, was the Secretary General of the Party, who was
appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Duce. About 10,000
branches of the Fascist Party were spread in various provinces. Each province
had a Provincial Secretary, who was appointed by the Duce on the recommendation
of the Secretary General. The Fascists established four auxiliary organizations
--- two for the boys and two for the girls.
In 1928 A.D., the Fascist
Party was written into the constitution of Italy, which legalized its
existence. The Government ordered the suppression of all non-Fascist
organizations in Italy.
Fascistization of the Government
Having come to power,
Mussolini got unlimited powers from the Parliament for a year. He adopted a
number of measures to fascistize the entire system of the Government. No person
could get a government job unless he was a Fascist. By a law, the Prime
Minister was rendered powers to dismiss any civil or military servant, whose
views were contrary to Fascism. By another law, the political party which got
maximum number of votes in the election was given the right to send 2/3 members
to the Chamber. It was also declared that, in future, the Prime Minister and
not the Parliament would be responsible towards the Emperor. It made Mussolini,
as the Prime Minister, the head of the State and all supreme powers in the
State passed into his hands. He also became the supreme commander of all the
forces. No legislative measures passed by the two Houses of the Parliament could
become a law unless it was approved by Mussolini.
In 1928 A.D., a law was passed
banning all the social, educational, moral and political institutions in the
country, which did not adhere to the Fascist ideas. No question regarding the national
importance, declaration of war, conclusion of peace, or the succession to the
throne could be decided in the absence or the refusal of the head of the
Fascist Party. Thus by these measures, Mussolini completely Fascistized the
Government and usurped all the powers. Generally it is said, “Constitutionally
speaking, he was merely the Prime Minister of Italy, but actually he was a
dictator.” The above contention is confirmed by Sumner Wells, “The members of
what was politically termed the Italian Government, were no more than Mussolini’s
lackeys. … For no one in Italy, from the King to his Ministers, from the
Generals to the Industrial magnates, dared to oppose him.”
Criticism
Mussolini brought efficiency
in the administration. All possible steps were taken to increase efficiency in
it. Works for public welfare were also undertaken. Strikes were banned.
However, agricultural and industrial unrest was not solved. Moreover, it
destroyed the Parliamentary form of government. There was no freedom of opinion
to people. Citizens were subjected to the rule of corrupt officials, and so
long as the Fascist regime continued, there was no scope of any relief.
Achievements of Mussolini or Fascism
The early years of power under
the Fascist regime were marked by a series of social and economic reforms.
According to the Fascists, “everything is within the State and nothing is
outside it.” From the economic point of view, Fascism was strictly against
communism. It stood for a co-operative idea of life. Syndicate system was also important
in Fascism. Principle of collective labour was given emphasis. People of
different trades were given permission to make unions.
In 1870 A.D., when Rome was
seized by the Italians, the relations between Italy and the Pope became the
worst thereafter. However, the struggle was settled in 1929 A.D. by the Latern
treaty. Accordingly,
(i) The Pope recognized the Kingdom of Italy under
the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital.
(ii) Small area of the Vatican City and St. Peter’s
Church was assigned to the Pope in full sovereignty.
Feeling that
the support of the Church to the Government would remove its weakness, the
Catholicism was declared to be supreme in Italy. The Pope was given the right
to appoint all bishops in Italy. However, he was not to appoint any such person
who was against the Fascist rule. The Pope was also given the power to appoint
teachers of religious education. Hence Southgate writes, “Perhaps Mussolini’s
most conspicuous success was the settlement of the sixty year old quarrel between
Italy and the Papacy.”
This settlement
checked the interference of religion into the politics. Moreover, Mussolini
adopted the policy in order to accomplish his political interests, just as
Napoleon Bonaparte did in the case of Concordat.
Foreign Policy of Mussolini
Discussing the foreign policy of Italy before the
World War I, Schumann states that she had been playing the role of a jackal in
the international politics since the period of Bismarck, attacking and
threatening the smaller and weak States, but feeling contented whatever she
secured from the Great Powers. But after the rise of Mussolini, this policy was
changed. He adopted peace for some years ‘despite bellicose speeches.’ But soon
he adopted an aggressive foreign policy. It was because of this policy that
amendments were made in the Treaty of Versailles, Italy occupied some African
colonies and Italy got a respectable seat in the international politics.
Moreover, Mussolini wanted to divert the attention of the Italians from the
internal politics. It could be possible if he kept Italy busy in the foreign
adventures.
Corfu
Incident
General Tolini of Italy was killed along with his four
companions on the Greek land. Mussolini demanded from Greece to give death
sentence to the culprits and pay five million lures to Italy. Greece refused to
accept these terms and took the matter to the League. Mussolini, however, did
not care for it, and bombarded and annexed Corfu. As the League failed to
settle the matter, the third world countries decided that Greece should accept
the terms of Mussolini, and asked the latter to retreat from Corfu. Thus the
dispute was settled and Mussolini gained much popularity.
Treaty of
Rome
According to the Paris Peace Conference, Italy was
deprived of Fiume, which got her independence in 1920 A.D. However, Mussolini
signed the treaty of Rome with Yugoslavia in 1924 A.D., as she was also not
happy over the independence of Fiume. According to the terms, Fiume was divided
into two parts. Fiume proper was occupied by Italy, while its neighbouring town
of Port Baros was given to Yugoslavia. It was a political triumph of Mussolini.
Treaty of
Tirana
In 1926 A.D., Mussolini concluded a treaty of Tirana
with Albania. By this treaty, Albania practically became Italy’s dependency. In
1939 A.D., on the day of Good Friday, Mussolini attacked Albania and annexed
it.
Domination
of Tangier
In 1928 A.D., England, France and Spain invited Italy
to have a share in the International Government of the Free City of Tangier on
the West Coast of Morocco. Italy was given much authority in the government of
this city.
Opposition
to the Nazi attempt on Austria
Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader of Germany, was very
keen to annex Austria. He, however, could not succeed in his aim. He then
encouraged the Nazis in Austria to revolt against the Austrian government. On
July 25, 1934 A.D., they killed the Austrian Prime Minister, Dollfuss, and
claimed their authority over some government buildings and Radio Station. But
soon, the Nazis were defeated by the government troops. All over the world,
Hitler was criticized for his attempts. Mussolini also openly criticized him.
Influence in
Central Europe
Mussolini signed many pacts with Hungary in April 1928
A.D., with Greece in September 1928 A.D., and with Austria in February 1930
A.D. Mussolini’s influence spread in the world when he made an alliance with
Great Britain and France on July 1, 1933 A.D. In March 1934 A.D., he also
signed an alliance with Austria and Hungary known as the Roman Protocol. In
1935 A.D., a treaty with Great Britain and France was concluded against Germany
at Stresa.
Conquest of
Abyssinia
In 1896 A.D., Italy was defeated by Abyssinia at
Adowa. Mussolini wanted to wipe off this humiliation. Secondly, Mussolini’s
imperialist policy also encouraged him to attack over Abyssinia. Thirdly, Italy needed to acquire more and
more colonies and food for her growing population. And if Mussolini defeated
Abyssinia, it would raise his prestige. Mussolini got an opportunity to attack
Abyssinia in 1935 A.D. due to some border incidents at Walwal. Haile Selassia,
the Emperor of Abyssinia, took the matter to the League. Italy was declared to
be the aggressor, but Mussolini defied the League decision and attacked
Abyssinia. Though Abyssinians put much resistance, the Italians succeeded to
reach near the capital of Abyssinia in April 1936 A.D. The Emperor of Abyssinia
left his country on May 1, and with it all the Abyssinian resistance came to an
end. Mussolini occupied Abyssinia and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel, the Emperor
of Italy, as the King of Abyssinia as well.
The conquest of Abyssinia played an important role in the
history between the two Wars. As Gathorn Hardy puts it that it “marks a crucial
turning point in post-war history. The triumph of Italian aggression naked and unashamed,
affected the whole world with fundamental consequences. To England it meant the
virtual destruction of the institution which successive governments of
different parties had proclaimed to be the keystone of their foreign policy. To
France, it meant that the enemy for whom she stood most in terror was
encouraged. ….”
Understanding
between Germany and Italy
The Italian conquest quite affected the international
relations between the two wars. By this conquest, Hitler got encouragement in
his aggressive designs. Italy also tilted towards the Axis nations alienating
the Allies. Thus, day by day, Italy and Germany came close to each other. In
1936 A.D., Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and signed the
Anti-Common Term Pact with Germany and Japan, well known as the
Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Italy left the League of Nations in December 1937 A.D.
Italian
intervention in Spain
Mussolini intended to increase his influence in Spain.
He got an opportunity when the civil war broke out in Spain. He supported Gen.
Franco against the Republicans. Despite the appeals made by the Republicans to
the League to prevent Italy to interfere in the internal affairs of Spain,
Mussolini continued with his activities. He also got help from Hitler. His
influence increased in Spain, when Gen. Franco defeated the Republicans and
established his government there.
Agreement
with England
Since the incident of Abyssinia, England had been on
unfriendly terms with Italy. But in 1938 A.D., an Anglo-Italian Pact was
concluded. England accepted Italy’s occupation of Abyssinia and gave
recognition to her African Empire. Mussolini, in turn, accepted to withdraw his
volunteers from Spain.
Mussolini
joins Hitler in World War II
In January 1936 A.D., the British Prime Minister, Lord
Chamberlain, and the Foreign Minister, Halifax, went to Rome for friendly relations,
but their mission was not successful. In May 1939 A.D., Mussolini signed the
Steel Pact with Hitler, according to which both the countries were to help each
other militarily, when one was at war. In September 1939, Hitler attacked
Poland to start the World War II, and in June 1940 A.D., Mussolini also
declared the Italian entrance in the World War.
