Civil Works of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the most remarkable figures in the history of Europe. Despite being a great conqueror of his time and creating terror in the continent, he also carried out a number of reforms and lay down a very sound administration in France and proved himself a very efficient administrator. He carried out his civil works and established law and order in France after it had seen many years of anarchy and confusion. That is why H.A.L. Fisher says, “If Napoleon’s conquests were ephemeral, his civil work in France was built on granite.” Even Ludwig observes, “He strives for order and peace more resolutely than for war and conquest.”

He carried out his works in all spheres --- political, financial, religious, social, cultural etc. so successfully that his name still lives in France.

Centralized Local Government: The National Assembly in France had framed the local administrative system on the electoral basis. But Napoleon was not satisfied with this system.His system was, instead, based on the principles of centralization and autocracy, and resembled more to the Old Regime than to the Revolutionary. He had more of the spirit of Louis XIV. Grant & Temperley observe, “He desired in everything the establishment of a central authority --- which could only be his own authority --- which should direct or control every part of the life of France.”He placed the Departments and other smaller administrative units ---- arrondissements and communes ---- in the hands of prefects, sub-prefects and mayors. These officers were appointed directly or indirectly by Napoleon.

Napoleon knew that it was only through this system of Centralization that peace and order could be restored in France and an efficient administrative machinery could be framed. the system worked well, indeed, though it completely ignored the ideas of self-government.

Equality vs. Liberty: Napoleon had devoted himself to the reorganization of France. According to him, “Bonaparte came to close the romance of revolution, to heal the wounds, to correct extravagances.” To establish efficiency in administration, he adopted many measures to bring social and economic equality. Equal social rights were provided to all. High posts were no more reserved only for the privileged classes, and merit was the only basis for selection. The officials had to remain faithful to the Emperor and obey his orders. Thus all the able and meritorious persons were offered an opportunity to rise. He also brought many important changes in the Taxation system. Equal taxes were imposed and there was no sign left in the indifference and inequality of taxes.According to A.J. Grant, “He never proposed to re-establish the system of financial privilege.” By making appointments on merit, he became very popular among his subjects, because no French ruler had ever taken steps in this direction so far.

However, he did not favour Liberty, because he considered it as an important factor for creating chaos and anarchy. Grant & Temperley observe, “He thought of liberty as a disturbing factor that prevented the efficiency of a State. There is no hint in anything that he said or wrote that he thought of it as the great force making for stability, order and efficiency.” Press and books were kept under censor-board. Even theatres were controlled by the Government.

Finances : The financial condition in France was deplorable under the rule of the ancien regime. The National Assembly took some steps to reform the French finances, but its reformatory measures added to its debts. The National Convention and the Directory had also not been successful to check the financial indebtedness. The economic settlement had failed all trade and industry in the country. Napoleon took very sound measures in this regard. First of all, he equated the taxation system in the country. Then he developed means of irrigation for the development of agriculture. New debt letters were replaced by the old ones. A separate treasure was established for the payment of the national debts. The Government made many arrangements for the technical education in the country. To popularize the national goods among the French, he increased the taxes on the imported goods.

The most significant work, which increased his honour in France, is the establishment of the Bank of France. It was a remarkable measure in the economic field. It was founded in 1800 A.D. Through this bank, he made many  attempts to revive the economy of France. Prof. Hayes is very right in his assumption when he considers as “one of the soundest financial institutions in the world.”

Crushing of Rebels and policy of conciliation : The Monarchists attempted to overthrow Napoleon and to reinstate monarchy in France. The Jacobins were seeking an opportunity to defend the Republic. But Napoleon had already made himself popular and won the public support by his extra-ordinary reforms and remarkable successes in the military front. He had raised the prestige of France in the entire world. He arrested his rivals and executed many of them. During the revolutionary days, the members of the privileged classes had to run away from France. Now he treated very sympathetically towards these emigrees and invited them to their native country. The offices were opened to all, including the royalists and the Girondists, provided they accepted the existing system.

Military Policy : Basically Napoleon was himself a soldier. Whatever he was and whatever he had achieved was all due to his military power. He introduced many changes in the military organization and made several reforms in order to defend his achievements and also France against the foreign invasions. He established a very powerful army with modern techniques and arms. He gave no opportunity to his Generals and soldiers to make any complaint. He served them with dresses, shoes and good food. Payments were made regularly. Thus this organization helped him to establish internal peace and order, conquer the foreign States and defend France against any invasion.

Napoleonic Codes : There existed a number of laws in France before Napoleon. Prof. Hayes says that the laws varied from one place in France to the other. To reconstruct France internally, his greatest achievement in this field was his Codes, which are considered as ‘a benefactor of mankind.’ During his days of exile in St. Helena, he once said that his Civil Code and not his victories in war, was his most real claim to fame. His Codes came into existence in 1804 and many of them form the law in France till this day. It gave to France a common system of law, which was at all clear, orderly and systematic. It also made justice more rapid, cheap and reliable. Besides, it established social equity in the eyes of law and secured religious toleration for all.

In all, there were five Codes of Napoleon --- Civil Code, Code of Civil Procedure, Code of Criminal Procedure and Penal Law, Penal Code, and the Commercial Code. The Codes passed through many stages before they became binding on France. He took an active part in revising the final draft of the Code. By his Civil Code, he stood for the absolute authority of father within the family. This Code even allowed the father to imprison his children. He was strongly in favour of the subjection of women. He used to say, “The angel told Eve to obey her husband.” It secured many of the victories that had been won by the Revolution. The Code of Criminal Procedure followed in many respects the English practice. Although the jury-system was severely criticized, Napoleon maintained it by his influence.

In the Penal Code, branding and confiscation of property was allowed as penalties.

Fisher concludes that although there are some defects, “the Codes preserve the essential conquests of the revolutionary spirit --- civil equality, religious toleration, the emancipation of land, public trial, the jury of judgment. ”

The Concordat : The Civil Constitution of Clergy (1790 A.D.) had divided the Church and the French people in their attitude towards the revolution. A large number of lower clergy had completely turned against it. It had made a considerable section of masses against it. Napoleon sought to win their gratitude by restoring the Roman-Catholic Church in France which had been the chief stumbling throne of the Revolution. In 1801 A.D., he made an agreement with the Pope, popularly known as the Concordat. He approved Catholicism as the greatest religion in France. The Church was returned its confiscated property. The bishops were now to be appointed by the State though nominated by the Pope. “The Pope could only reject his nominees on the ground of heresy or immorality, and, if there was no fault to be found with them on these points, was bound to grant canonical investiture.” The bishops had to take an oath of fidelity to the Government. Thus Catholicism was re-established in France, dependent on the State and satisfying the majority of the population.

Though Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France, its position was entirely different than in the pre-revolutionary France. To quote Napoleon, “The people must have a religion and the religion must be in the hands of the Government.” The object of his religious policy in the words of Ketelby is, “Religion was to him only a useful political instrument, a national imaginative focus, a social cement, a safety valve.”

Educational system : Napoleon introduced a number of reforms in the educational field as well. ‘Education is very essential for the development of a nation’, were his views. There were to be schools of four categories : primary, secondary, military training (lycees), and technical training. There was to be the Imperial University at the head of all the centres. There was to be one University for all France, and it was intended to bring the whole educational system of France under the control of the University. To be a Graduate was an essential qualification to teach.

The Institut de France was established in 1795 A.D. for higher studies and research. Napoleon was satisfied with its works in physical science, fine arts, mathematics and literature. He disliked the study of moral and political sciences, and suppressed these departments by one his Decree of January 23, 1803.

His object in the educational field, like in religion, was also to fulfill his self-interests. He, however, did not succeed in his educational mission, because of the lack of wealth and experienced teachers. Moreover, his much attention to the military and political exigencies also prevented him to fulfill his desires in this field.

Legion of Honour : In 1802 A.D., Napoleon established an institution, Legion of Honour. It was established because “the French are accessible to only one sentiment --- love of honour.” This honour was confined on those persons who, according to Napoleon, had done something extra-ordinary either in civil or in military spheres. In the beginning, it was criticized very much, but soon its members got very respectable position in the French society. Even today, this system works in France and is a very significant and important institution.

Works of Public Welfare : Napoleon inaugurated a vast series of public works. Roads were projected and many were taken under construction. Canals were cut. Agriculture was improved by the introduction of modern scientific methods; industry was developed in France. Gas was introduced for illuminant. Trees were grown on both sides of the roads. These works also helped the improvement of finances in France. To quote Grant & Temperley, “The general condition of France until the Empire touched its period of ruin, showed an air of prosperity in all classes.”

David Thompson observes that between 1800 and 1803 A.D., Napoleon as First Consul devoted himself mainly to the interval reorganization of France. “It was in this period that his most constructively valuable work was done. He brought to the task of reorganization the qualities of swift decision and action, the same precision and concentration upon essentials which had already brought him success in war. The spirit behind the great reforms of the Consulate at home was the transference of the methods of Bonaparte the general to the tasks of Bonaparte the statesman. And, as in war, he was able to enlist in his service a brand of men imbued with the same spirit and devoted to the same ends.” Fisher confirms the above contention as he says, “Napoleon’s reforms in the domain of law, education, finance, religion and local administration certainly proved more solid and more enduring as compared to his military conquests. He established many many enduring and everlasting institutions in France. He consolidated his country and at the same time preserved certain fruits of revolution. He had displayed his marvellous quality as an organizer and talented administrator.”

Continetal System of Napoleon Bonaparte

Continental System was a political fight of Napoleon through economic means to ruin his obstinate enemy, England. After the treaty of Tilsit (1807), Napoleon became the paramount master of the entire continent. However, there was one hindrance in his way to the supremacy which blocked his path and that was the Navy.   Napoleon was aware of his weakness in the Naval Front, and, therefore, followed the continental system, which the historians have termed as the court of last throw of political gamble, compelled by the exigencies of the game to risk all or fail correspondingly. Napoleon having lost his Navy to Nelson had never tried to rebuild it to match the British strength. He thought that there was one weak point in the British industry and commerce, and if he attacked it, he would be able to bring the British on their knees. What he was required to do was to put an end to the monopoly of the British goods in the Continent. The cheap markets of the British goods promoted it, but once the British trade and commerce was lost, the British prosperity was to go to loss. This, in his opinion, was the best method of teaching a lesson to the ‘nation of shopkeepers’, as he called the British.

In Napoleon’s opinion, France was a self-sufficient country. Through his commercial codes, he organised his trade and commerce and made it prosperous and profitable. He knew that Britain was a manufacturing country. They sold their surplus goods outside their country, and thus earned huge profits and foreign exchange. Being prevented from carrying on this trade outside the country, she would no more have supply of cash and would go bankrupt. Her financial tendency would not then permit her to pay for the continuance of war and hence would submit to the French.

Napoleon felt that the ruin of the British overseas trade would result in her ruin of industry. The British manufacturers, due to the lack of customers, would draw the shutters of godowns and factories. Thousands of workers would be thrown out of work and prevail starvation. Commercial classes would raise in revolt and would put terrific pressure on the government to make peace with Napoleon. In the words of Prof. Hayes, “During the period 1806 to 1812, the struggle between Napoleon and Great Britain was an economic endurance test. On the one hand the question was whether British government could retain the support of the British people. On the other hand, the question was whether Napoleon could rely upon the co-operation of the whole continent.”

After having thought the problem, Napoleon resolved and embarked upon his plan of conquering England. The adopted policy of Continental Blockade, which the Convention and the Directory had started, gave it the real shape and forced more. In 1806 A.D., when he had his deserving victories at Moringo, Austerlitz and Jena, he considered himself the master of Europe and was in a position to enforce the Economic Blockade. He, therefore, used his weapon unflinchingly without changing his mind. He came out in November 1806 with the intention in this connection, for the first time, openly by issuing what are known as the Berlin Decrees. Through these Decrees, he out rightly came out with what had been going on so far in his mind. He declared England to be the enemy of the European continent and expressed his intention unequivocally to fight and defeat the obstinate British, who had nothing but contempt for Europe and its people. These islanders (i.e. the British) had never considered themselves, in his opinion, the members of the same European family. He told the European nations that time had come to pay them back with the same contempt as the British had shown them. Till then, Napoleon in this way wanted to arouse the feelings of the Europeans against his enemy to get their whole-heart co-operation in this great and earnest endeavour to defeat the British. It was a good plan and he could succeed if the Continental Blockade had not lingered on. Had it been a short affair, it would have succeeded. Unfortunately for Napoleon, the British had a reply for the Continental Blockade and it was this answer from which Napoleon’s scheme of  conquering England came to grief.

Though the continental blockade of England had been done by the National Convention and the Directory, but with no success. Now it was Napoleon;s turn to give it a definite shape. The Berlin Decree, the first in the series, was issued on November 18, 1806. It was compared to a thunder-bolt. He declared that the whole of the British isles, i.e. England, Scotland, Ireland and the Wales, was to be in the state of blockade. He miscalculated the usefulness of the French Navy to enforce the blockade on the superior British Naval Fleet. That is why the historians have called it the most fictitious blockade ever ordered in history. He prohibited all commerce with British ports, wholly or partially of British origin, and declared them liable to seizure. This was the most outrageous violation of the neutral rights under International Law, which had been perpetuated by Napoleon. The Cambridge Modern History has summed it up in the following words, “It is no exaggeration to say that the Berlin Decree of 18th November, 1806 was the climax to which Napoleon’s policy had so long been working for.” How strict Napoleon wanted to be to the blockade can be found in a letter written to General Juno in which he stated that the wives of his chief officers and Generals should also avoid using English goods, because they were the people who were to set an example for others. “Let them take care also,” wrote Napoleon, “that no part of their dress is composed of English merchandise. ....... It is a contest of life and death between France and England. I must look for the most cordial times in those homes I am surrounded.” To the Berlin Decrees, England’s most useful weapon lay, as according to Ramsay Muir, “ She could damage Napoleon in the eyes of the subjects by making them realise that his commercial war was cutting them off by necessary supplies and was a victim upon grievous harshes.”

An Order in Council was issued in January 1807, which pointed out that England had prohibited all trade with France. Again, the Orders were issued in which England made concessions to Denmark and Russia by making its goods available for sale in those countries. In November 1807, England imposed blockade of all European ports and thus brought to an end the neutral trade. It made the neutrals miserable as they were now between the devil and the deep sea. It made, in fact, impossible for them to be strictly neutral. At the same time, the British relaxed the navigation and offered substantial concessions to non-neutrals and thus encouraged the neutral countries openly to come out for trade with Great Britain instead of France.

Realising a setback and a dent in his Continental System, Napoleon again issued decrees from Warsaw, whereby he ordered the confiscation of the British goods and prohibited the possession of the British goods by any trader or householder. Again, he issued from Milan his decrees. In this Decree, he declared that any neutral vassal was liable to seizure. This was done to encounter the British orders. In 1809, Britain modified her policy by limiting her blockade to the coasts of Holland, France and Italy, thus leaving the trade open with Spain, Portugal, Hungary and Politic lands. Napoleon, on the other hand, stiffened his policy. He had realised that his vassals were not carrying on his policy on a large scale. So by the Tariff Decrees of August 5, 1810, he imposed duties amounting to 15% average on Principal Colonial Prospects. On the same time, by the Decree of Fountainbleau, issued in 1810, Napoleon ordained the seizure and destruction of Britain manufacturing goods and set up a special tribunal to enforce this order. “These monster inactments brought ruin and suffering wherever they were applied and nothing did more to Napoleon’s subjects than the spectacle of the wanted destruction of grave stones of desperately needed supplies.”

Such were the measures of attack and reprisals by means of which Napoleon carried on his commercial war for years together. In the opinion of Marriott, “Between the Decrees launched by Napoleon and the British reprisals, there was this essential difference -- Great Britain had the power of enforcing them effectively, Napoleon had not. Britain was the mistress of seas and it ruled the waves. She could cut off the trade of France and her allies from the rest of the world.”

Despite all this and the early realisation for the success of Continental System, it was essential that he had the support of every European country, more essentially that with Naval Power, he would survive off the aggression upon the countries in the European Continent. He was reluctant in resolving the deadlock, resulting to the costly wars. Prof. Trevelyan writes, “England’s resistance unexpectedly continued and drew Napoleon on into more and more dangerous schemes of Spain and Russia into ever stricter prohibition against trade. It seemed that he must conquer and starve the whole world in order to starve and conquer the islanders i.e. British.”

The Tsar of Russia had promised Napoleon at Tilsit in 1807 that he would not allow the British ships and her goods to enter any of the Russian ports. Austria and Prussia had been severely crushed by Napoleon that they had to enforce his policy willy-nilly in their dominions. Sweden was still in alliance with England and in 1808, Napoleon declared war against her and forced her to close all Scandinavians to England. Napoleon’s brother, Louis Bonaparte, was made the master of Holland, but he could not enforce the blockade. Consequently, Louis was forced to abdicate and Holland was annexed into France. Napoleon also captured North Coast. His empire included the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and the Duchy of Westphalia, and also forced the system on Cis Alpine, Naples, Tuscany etc. His negotiations with the Pope brought him in conflict with the Papal States, which were captured and the Pope was put in the prison. This completely made him the enemy of all the Christian States, who would not forgive him for the insult inflicted on the Pope.

Portugal, the old friend of Britain, was also antagonised and this gave the British an opportunity to create trouble for Napoleon during the Peninsular War. Thus it was all suicidal for Napoleon during to enforce the Continental System on the unwilling nations of Europe. It failed right from the beginning and did fail ultimately because it lacked the sympathy and co-operation of the people of Europe. His policy of starving the world in order to starve Great Britain was also a negative one, which brought nothing but miseries, sufferings, trials and timulations for the people of Europe and people of France and ultimately led to his downfall. Napoleon had matured earlier and probably he had grown old earlier as well. It is said that after forty, he was not the same Napoleon. His knack of doing right things at the right time had left him in forty, hence his downfall.