Sino-Japanese Relations, 1870-1874 A.D.

The historical relations between China and Japan all centre in Korea and it was in and over Korea that they first came in serious conflict in the modern period of their history. The results of this conflict were to prove of tremendous significance not only in the history of the two immediate contestants involved in the conflict, but for the entire world.

Korea’s geographical situation was such that it inevitably became a bone of contention between her two neighbours -- China and Japan. Any one of these two powers, if in possession of Korea, could entertain and realise expansionist designs towards the other.

China being a vast and powerful country in the beginning was unaware of what was happening in Japan. In fact, she had looked with scorn towards Japan as an inferior nation. The situation began to change considerably since the second half of the 19th century. Japan, having once been opened to the West, was quick to learn Western sciences, technology, education and diplomacy, and consolidated her position. With the Meiji Restoration, internal unity of Japan under the Emperor strengthened. The situation was just the contrary in China. The Chinese territory was being trimmed and her influence was decreasing. The ruling Manchu dynasty was fast losing its prestige and vitality. Moreover, the Chinese suffering from a superiority complex were not inclined to learn anything from the West.

Again, the Chinese, by unwisely engaging into an armed conflict with the Western Powers had exposed her own weakness. As such, she was compelled to sign a number of humiliating treaties with them granting extra-territorial concessions, open a large number of her ports to trade with them and allow Christian missionaries. Her national prestige had thus been lowered. Japan proved wiser. It did not expose weakness by inviting armed conflict. She gave concessions to Europeans on honourable terms and also strengthened herself by adopting Western learning in science, technology and war.

Before the Meiji restoration, China had considered Japan merely a tiny State under her control and influence. But Japan had considerably strengthened her position after the Meiji restoration, and wanted to expand particularly in the direction of Korea. She also wanted to revise her relations with China on the basis of equality. As such, in the beginning of the seventies of the 19th century, Japan sent a Mission to China to conclude a treaty. But the Chinese Foreign Office showed reluctance for a Treaty on equal terms with Japan. She only allowed to latter to have trade with her. In 1871 A.D., a Treaty of friendship was signed between the two countries, thus marking the beginning of formal relations.

However, in 1874 A.D., the relations between the two neighbours worsened over Korea. It was under the formal control and nominal suzerainty of China, but for some years now she had not paid any attention to it. This led Japan to entertain political and territorial ambitions in Korea. Land and food for its ever expanding population, commercial expansion required due to rapid industrial progress, the imperialistic ambitions of Meiji Regime and Russia’s big naval station at Vladivostok near Korean borders with Russia’s designs against Korea itself were some of the factors that were responsible for Japan’s desire to have an early grab of Korea before any other power could do so.

Relations between China and Japan first came into conflict in 1874 A.D. over the Loochoo Islands. A certain number of ship-wrecked sailors of these islands were killed by some savage inhabitants in Formosa. Japan claiming sovereignty over Loochoo demanded compensation. China replied that Loochoo was her territory and ship-wreck incident was an internal affair of China in which Japan had no right to intervene. Japan adopted threatening policy by sending two armies -- one to Formosa and the other against China. But the mediation of the British representative, Sir Thomas, brought a compromise. China agreed to pay compensation and assured safety for Japanese seamen.

Importance: China indirectly agreed that Japan had some legal rights over Loochoo Islands. China’s responsible statesmen, such as Li-Hung-Chang, became conscious of Japan’s aggressive designs against China, which were most dangerous than that of the Europeans.

But the real conflict between China and Japan was over Korea. As rightly pointed out by Vinacke, "The historical relations of Japan and China all centre in Korea that they first came into serious conflict in the modern period of their history." As hinted above, Russia’s ambitions in regard to Korea and China’s neglect of Korea led Japan to strengthen her hold over the hermit Kingdom. As such, she concluded a treaty with Korea.

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was a result of the First World War. It stamps one of the most striking developments in the era between the two World Wars. The League, a part of President Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’, mainly aimed at preventing wars, or any other dispute between the two nations. Ketelbey says, “Like the Holy Alliance, the League was an expression of the desire of a war-weary world to preserve international peace and stability.”
The Covenant of the League
The Covenant of the League contained 26 articles. In these articles, the duties of the League were discussed. The Preamble states that the High Contracting Parties agreed to the Covenant “in order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security.” Some of the primary articles of the League are as follows:
- Independent nations of the world were invited to accept the membership of the League. Self-governing Dominions of the British Empire were also included to it. The Headquarters of the League were to be at Geneva in Switzerland.
- To prevent the outbreak of the War was the chief aim of the League.
- Every member-State pledged not to go to war. It had to submit first the matter in dispute to the League to consider upon. The war could not be declared unless three months had passed after the League had announced its decision, and when the decision was not accepted.
- If this undertaking of not going to war was violated by any of the member-State, others were free to take action by stopping trade, by blockade, and by the employment of force.
- The League managed for the member-States not to sign secret treaties. Copies of all the treaties were to be deposited with the League. Power was given to the League to call attention to the treaties, which might prove dangerous to the peace. The League could suggest the concerned States to revise those treaties.
The League differed with the Holy Alliance. It only dealt with the disputes of the countries and maintained peace in the world. It did not intervene in the internal affairs of the respective countries.
The Members of the League
The membership of the League can be studied as:
(a) Original Members: The States which had signed the Treaty of Peace (Grand Alliance) and thirteen neutral powers were invited to join the League immediately.
(b) Non-original Members: These States could become the members of the League after the approval of the Assembly by its 2/3 majority.
It was necessary for every member-State to pledge itself “to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war.”
Any member-State could willingly withdraw from the League after giving two-years’ notice.
Organization of the LeagueThe organs of the League were as follows:
(a) The Assembly: The Assembly contained the delegates of various States. Each member-State could have three representatives, but only one could vote. All the important questions regarding the international, political and economic matters with dispute endangering the world-peace were referred to this body of the League, and it made the decisions. Every year, in the month of September, the Assembly was to meet at Geneva.
(b) The Council: As it was not possible for the Assembly to meet more than once a year, its Council performed much of the League’s business. It was to meet thrice a year and even more in emergency. It consisted of (i) Permanent members, representing the Great Powers, and (ii) Non-Permanent members, elected from time to time by the smaller States. Its actual composition changed many times after it was established.
(c) The Secretariat: A Secretariat was established in Geneva. A number of men and women were employed here as a Permanent International Civil Service. A Secretary General was appointed by the approval of the Council and the Assembly. It had to prepare the duties for the Assembly and the Council. The office of the Secretariat worked throughout the year.
The Council primarily aimed to make attempts to avoid wars. Articles X to XVII of the Covenant dealt with avoiding wars. Article X reads, “The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League.” The League gave power to each member-State to call on the Assembly when needed.
The establishment of the League does not mean that international peace had been restored forever. It was decided that in order to settle the disputes between nations something suitable should be done lest they should take the shape of war.
(d) Court of International Justice: The League decided at its first session of the Assembly to establish a Court of International Justice. It was to sit at Hague from time to time. To this Court, the Assembly and the Council appointed a number of judges for nine years. The League of Nations had no power to remove them. Disputes could be referred to the Court for settlement within the provisions of International Law and the treaties between the parties to dispute. The decisions of the Court were binding and could not be challenged. The Court could revise its own judgment in the light of the facts brought before it. The Council and the Assembly could ask for the advisory opinion of the Court.
Till 1936, the Court dealt with seventy-one cases. Of these were forty-three disputes, which were settled judicially, while twenty-eight were requests for advisory opinions.
(e) International Labour Organization: The International Labour Organization was established to improve the conditions of the laborers and to civilize the backward countries up to the level of those prevailing elsewhere.
Functions of the League
1. Mandatory system: The League made some provisions for the annexed territories under the mandatory system. It was generally felt that the victors paid no attention to these territories and had done so, obviously, to fulfill their selfish motives. The League placed the sovereign administration of the territories captured from the Central Powers and Turkey not under any victor country, but to the powers under the supervision of the League. The process is called the ‘Mandatory System’. The mandatory powers were required to administer the mandatory State in order to help her political, social and economic development. The powers had to annually submit a report to the League, informing the progress made by the Province under their control. The League could also send its nominee to see how much progress the territories under the mandatory rule made. It was also hoped that when the regions under the mandatory system would make such progress that the continuance of the system seemed unnecessary, they would become eligible to get the League’s membership. In 1932 A.D., Iraq became eligible for the membership of the League and was granted independence.
2. Settlement of International Disputes: The main aim of the League was to prevent wars, and it succeeded in its aim many a times.
(i) Boundary Dispute: Greece and Yugoslavia were prepared for a war for Albania. However, the League intervened and solved the matter peacefully.
(ii) Bulgaria-Greek Dispute: Two Greek soldiers were killed in a conflict with Bulgaria. When Bulgaria refused to pay the compensation, Greece attacked upon it. Bulgaria appealed to the League. The Council ordered both the sides to remove their army from the field. A Commission was appointed, which found Greece guilty and ordered her to pay for the war-compensation. Both the sides accepted the decision. Thus the war came to an end.
(iii) Letacia Dispute (1933 A.D.): The army of Peru attacked Columbia and annexed Letacia from it. The League interfered in the matter on the appeal of Columbia. The decision went in the favour of Columbia and thus she recovered Letacia.
(iv) Dispute over Aaland Islands: The Aaland Islands were under Finland while her population was Swedish. In 1909 A.D., Finland along with Aaland Islands was annexed by Russia. In 1917 A.D., Finland became free and the population of Aaland Islands desired to be with Sweden. However, Finland was not prepared to accept this decision. In these circumstances, there was every possibility of a war. The League interfered in the matter and in June 1921 A.D., it was decided that Finland must have sovereignty over the Islands; people of the Islands were guaranteed autonomy and protection of their political rights; Swedish language in schools could be used; and rights of private property were to be preserved. The area was to be neutralized and unfortified. It was accepted by Sweden and Finland. Regarding it, an international treaty was signed on April 6, 1922 A.D.
(v) Tunis-Morocco Problem: It was between England and France, which was solved amicably.
(vi) Eupen and Malmedy: In 1920-21 A.D., Germany made protests before the League for giving Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. The Council of the League discussed the matter and announced that its decision regarding the matter was final.
(vii) Hungarian Dispute: In the Paris Peace Conference, some area of Hungary was given to Romania. People of this place, however, wanted to remain under Hungary. They were allowed to go to Hungary, but could not take their property with them. Both the countries made a treaty when the League interfered.
(viii) Yorjovena Dispute: It was a dispute regarding the boundary between Poland and Czechoslovakia. The League appointed a Commission for boundary-limits, and succeeded in solving the problem.
3. Works for the Public Welfare
(i) Health: The member-States were to co-operate with the League in order to prevent the diseases.
Permanent Health Organization: The organization, established in 1923 A.D., made many attempts to prevent the increase in diseases in the backward countries. In this year, the Malaria Commission tried to prevent this dangerous disease. In 1931 A.D., a convention was called for the Rural Health Development. The delegates of the twenty-three member-States took part in it and worked for the improvement of the rural health.
(ii) Economic Reconstruction: A number of Economic Conventions were called. Among these, the Brussels Convention and the International Economic Convention are very famous. An International Relief Union was established, which gave economic help as the ‘First Aid’ through a treasure it made.
(iii) International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation: It was a seventeen-member committee, which spread the intellectual co-operation throughout the world.
(iv) Humanitarian Activities: The League of Nations strictly checked the trade of children and the women. It also made efforts to abolish slavery.
Thus the League did a lot of useful works for the human welfare, and that is why Cordell Hull says, “The League of nations has been responsible for more humanitarian and scientific endeavour than any other organization in history.”
4. Failures of the League: Besides the significant and successful activities of the League, it failed to solve a number of disputes.
(i) Vilna dispute: According to the Paris Peace Conference, the city of Vilna was given to Lithuania, taking from Poland. In 1920 A.D., Poland annexed the city militarily. Lithuania made an appeal to the League. Although the League intervened, yet it failed to get Vilna back from Poland.
(ii) Corfu dispute: Mussolini demanded compensation for the murder of the Italian delegates in the Greek territories, while they were fixing the boundary line for Albania. On the refusal by Greece, Mussolini bombarded it and annexed Corfu. Greece made an appeal to the League, which ordered Italy to pay compensation for her behaviour. Mussolini, however, did not care for the League’s decision. Although, later on, he called back his army from Corfu, yet he compelled Greece to pay compensation. It was completely a failure on the part of the League.
(iii) Dispute between Bolivia and Paraguay: An armed clash took place between Bolivia and Paraguay in December 1928, for the region of Granchaco. The area was under Bolivia, which was militarily annexed by Paraguay. Bolivia made an appeal to the League. When the League gave her decision against Paraguay, she refused to accept it. On being compelled, Paraguay resigned from the League’s membership. However, the dispute was later settled with U.S.A.’s intervention, but the fact remains that the League had failed here.
(iv) Japanese attack over Manchuria: Japan had fixed her eyes over Manchuria for a long time. On September 18, 1931 A.D., Japan annexed all the Chinese towns within a radius of 200 miles north of Mukden, and kept on to conquer Manchuria. China made many appeals to the League in this regard and Japan was ordered to retreat from Manchuria. However, Japan paid no attention to it. The British policy of appeasement also gave much force to her aims, and she ultimately succeeded in annexing it. On March 27, 1933 A.D., Japan resigned from the membership of the League. The process again proved the incapability of the League.
(v) Italian attack upon Abyssinia: In 1934-35 A>D., there were clashes between the troops of Italy and Abyssinia, as a consequence of Mussolini’s imperialistic policy. Prior to the attack, he had received much help from England and France as well. He put a number of unreasonable claims for compensation and then annexed the whole of Abyssinia. Although the League tried to check Italy, Mussolini did not care for it and remained busy with his activities. The policy of Collective Security was also a complete failure; because every State started feeling that it could do howsoever it may please without any fear of collective action against her.
(vi) Spain: Italy and Germany helped General Franco against the Republicans during the Civil War in Spain. The republicans sought help from the League. The League announced that no State could give military assistance to any faction during the Civil War. But Italy and Germany paid no attention to this order. After 1939 A.D., when General Franco won, England gave recognition to his Government. It minimized the League’s position.
(vii) Sino-Japanese War: In 1936 A.D., Japan attacked China without declaring a war. China requested the League for enforcing financial ban on Japan, but the League refused, as Japan was no more her member.
The League, thus, failed many a times in her mission to prevent the outbreak of the war and her existence proved of no value.
Causes of the failure of the League of Nations
The ultimate failure of the League of Nations was a cumulative result of a variety of factors.
(i) The League’s inter-relation with the Paris Peace Conference: From the very beginning, there were many States who were dissatisfied with the Peace Conferences. Those who had no belief in the Paris Peace Settlement did always hate the institutions related to it.
(ii) Dismemberment of America: Though President Wilson had aspired for the League of Nations, yet U.S.A. did not join the League. Consequently, the decisions of the League did not stick on America. If the League imposed financial restrictions, America was always there to help her. Thus the punishment that the League inflicted upon any erring nation had no impact.
(iii) Limited powers of the League: The scope of the activities of the League was large, while its powers were limited. This inequality also became a factor of its failure.
(iv) Wrong policies of the member-States: The response of the member-States towards the League was not sincere. Hence it also became a factor for its failure. France wanted to use it as an instrument to pressurize Germany. England wanted to use it for her commercial gains. Germany saw in it a house of conspiracy against her, while to Russia it was a conspiracy against Communism. The policy of appeasement of England also became a cause of its failure.
(v) Little number of the members: All the nations in the world had not become its members. U.S.A. did not join it. Germany and U.S.S.R. joined it later on, but soon left it. Japan also resigned its membership. Later on, the League with its limited membership was known only as a ‘community of victors’. Mutual non-cooperation and disbelief also became a cause of its failure.
(vi) Rise of Dictatorship: The rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler made it difficult for the League to carry on its work of International Peace. They wanted to rule over the world on the basis of their power, and were never prepared to sign any treaty, which could prove a hindrance to their imperialist designs.
(vii) Wrong policy of the League to defend peace: The League bowed to injustice in order to defend peace. When Italy attacked Abyssinia, her ruler Helsilasy declared, “Peace can be defended by justice and the second method is to defend peace at any cost. If the League tries to defend Peace at the altar of its member-State at any cost, the League will suicide.” Helsilasy’s views proved to be accurate.

Although the League was called a ‘League of notions’ or a ‘league of robbers’ and it was felt that the League could only bark and did not bite, yet it did a lot of work which proved very significant during its existence of twenty years. There were some disputes, which the League settled very successfully, yet it had to come forth a number of problems, which it failed to settle at all. On the whole, according to Walters, “The League as a working institution is dead, but the ideals which it sought to promote, the hopes to which it gave rise, the method it devised, the agencies it created, have become an integral part of the political thinking of the civilized world.”